u,  a  ;  u  19? 


S.  R.  S.  Doc.  76. 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTU 

STATES  RELATIONS  SERVICE, 
A.  C.  TRUE,  Director. 


INSTRUCTION   IN   SHEEP   AND   GOAT 
HUSBANDRY. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TEACHERS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

By  H.  P.  Barrows.  Specialist  in  Agricultural  Education.1 
INTRODUCTION. 

In  teaching  animal  husbandry,  as  in  every  other  phase  of  agriculture,  there 
is  ;i  great  need  of  adapting  the  course  of  study  in  a  better  way  to  the  interests 
of  the  students  and  the  needs  of  the  particular  community  in  which  they  live 
and  in  which  the  school  is  located.  In  a  dairy  section  where  the  students  are  en- 
gaged in  caring  for  cows  their  daily  experience  in  feeding  the  animals  and  in 
caring  for  the  milk  should  form  a  basis  for  the  major  part  of  the  classroom  dis- 
cussion of  principles.  If  the  student  is  taking  care  of  animals  on  his  own  ac- 
count as  a  home  project,  there  will  be  no  lack  of  interest  in  the  classroom  work 
if  it  is  based  upon  the  real  problems  which  the  students  are  meeting.  Poultry 
and  pigs  are  becoming  important  features  of  the  secondary  course  in  animal 
husbandry  because  they  afford  at  this  time  a  ready  means  of  increasing  our 
meat  supply  and  because  they  furnish  suitable  home  projects.  At  this  time 
teachers  in  many  sections  of  the  United  States  may  very  well  consider  the  pos- 
sibilities in  raising  sheep  and  goats  in  the  section  in  which  the  school  is  located 
and  the  opportunities  afforded  for  home  projects  for  students  who  have  favor- 
able conditions.  Although  sheep  or  goats  may  not  be  important  in  the  com- 
munity, and  comparatively  little  time  taken  for  the  class  as  a  whole  in  their 
consideration,  aid  and  guidance  should  be  given  to  those  students  who  desire 
to  make  an  individual  study  of  the  industry  in  connection  with  their  home 
projects  or  regular  work  on  the  farm. 

I.  SHEEP. 

SCHOOL  AND    HOME   PRACTICUMS. 

As  far  as  possible  the  work  of  the  classroom  should  be  connected  very 
closely  with  the  practical  work  of  the  farm.  As  a  rule,  it  will  be  better  to 
approach  the  principles  in  an  inductive  way  through  concrete  experience  and 
practice.  It  will  not  always  be  possible,  however,  to  have  the  practicums 
precede  the  recitation. 

The  following  exercises  may  be  undertaken  by  the  class  as  a  whole  at  the 
school   or  upon   neighboring  farms  or   may   be   assigned  as  individual  home 

1  Prepared  under  the  direction  of  F.  E.  Heald,  Specialist  in  Agricultural  Education,  iu 
charge. 

41607°— 18 


practicums.  Credit  should  be  given  for  the  work  done  at  home  when  the 
student  has  demonstrated  his  proficiency. 

Handling  sheep.1 — As  a  preliminary  to  work  in  judging  and  general  manage- 
ment of  sheep,  students  should  have  practice  in  catching  and  moving  sheep  and 
in  proper  methods  of  handling,  including  the  setting  of  a  sheep  upon  its  rump. 

Use  of  score  card.1 — As  preparation  also  for  work  in  judging,  students  should 
become  familiar  with  the  points  of  the  animal  and  classification  and  weight 
given  those  points  on  a  score  card.  It  is  well  to  begin  with  a  study  of  the 
type  most  important  in  the  district.  In  most  sections  the  mutton  type  will 
receive  first  consideration.  Later,  in  connection  with  a  study  of  breeds,  there 
may  be  time  for  a  consideration  of  score  cards  for  one  or  more  of  the  breeds 
important  in  the  district.  As  a  rule,  score  cards  ma^  be  obtained  from  the 
State  college  of  agriculture. 

Estimating  age  and  weight  of  sheep1 — In  connection  with  the  use  of  the 
score  card,  students  should  be  given  practice  in  estimating  the  age  of  sheep  by 
the  teeth  and  condition  of  the  mouth.  The  score  card  will  also  call  for  an 
estimate  of  the  weight  of  the  animal.  If  possible,  scales  should  be  used  as  a 
check  upon  the  estimates  of  the  students. 

Chrading  wool.1 — In  order  to  develop  an  appreciation  of  greater  care  in 
selecting  and  handling  sheep  with  regard  to  developing  and  maintaining  a 
better  standard  of  wool,  some  attention  should  be  given  to  a  study  of  market 
grades  and  classes  and  to  practical  work  in  judging  wool.  Department  Bul- 
letin 206,  The  Wool  Grower  and  the  Wool  Trade,  gives  illustrations  and  de- 
scriptions of  market  grades  and  classes  which  may  be  made  a  basis  for  such  a 
study. 

Comparative  judging1 — The  exercises  suggested  should  be  considered,  but 
preliminary  to  real  judging ;  i.  e.,  judging  by  comparison.  Abundant  practice 
should  be  given  in  placing  two  or  more  sheep  according  to  their  merit  with 
regard  to  different  factors  such  as  quality,  constitution  and  market  condition, 
and  with  regard  to  their  general  value.  Practice  should  be  given  also  in 
selecting  sheep  for  breeding  or  feeding  purposes  from  a  flock  and  placing  value 
on  sheep  selected  for  a  definite  purpose. 

Making  equipment. — Inasmuch  as  sheep  require  a  good  deal  of  equipment 
which  may  be  made  on  the  farm,  there  is  an  excellent  opportunity  for  the 
class  which  is  considering  sheep  husbandry  to  cooperate  with  a  class  in  farm 
mechanics  in  the  practical  woodworking  exercises  involved.  Directions  for 
the  following  exercises  may  be  obtained  from  Farmers'  Bulletin  810,  Equip- 
ment for  Farm  Sheep  Raising: 

(1)  Plans  of  sheep  barns  and  sheds. — Although  there  may  be  no  opportunity 
for  the  majority  of  schools  to  undertake  the  construction  of  a  sheep  barn  as  a 
class  project,  wherever  sheep  husbandry  is  important  students  should  be  re- 
quired to  adapt  the  plans  given  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  810  to  meet  the  needs  of 
their  home  farms. 

(2)  Making  feed  racks  and  troughs. — From  the  variety  of  racks  and  troughs 
described  in  the  bulletin  a  selection  may  be  made  of  those  fitting  local  needs 
and  conditions.  Such  equipment  may  be  made  for  a  near-by  farm  as  a  class 
practicum  or  assigned  to  a  student  as  an  individual  home  practicum  or  to  be 
made  in  connection  with  his  project  in  raising  sheep. 

(3)  Lambing  pens,  creeps,  fences,  and  hurdles. — Plans  of  a  variety  of  fence 
panels  with  suggestions  for  making  lambing  and  claiming  pens,  creeps,  hurdles, 
and  dog-proof  fences  are  also  given  in  the  bulletin  from  which  suitable  equip- 
ment may  be  selected  to  meet  the  needs  of  class  members  or  school  patrons. 
The  making  of  such  equipment  may  also  be  suitable  for  the  class  as  a  whole 
or  for  individual  students. 

(4)  A  dipping  vat. — Some  of  the  agricultural  schools  in  the  South  have 
rendered  a  good  service  to  the  community  and  at  the  same  time  given  good 
practice  to  their  students  by  having  them  construct  and  operate  a  community 
dipping  vat  at  the  school.  Although  such  a  project  may  not  be  needed  or 
feasible  in  all  sections  where  sheep  husbandry  is  carried  on,  in  most  sections 
it  will  be  possible  to  let  the  students  have  some  participation  in  the  dipping 
and  hand  dressing  of  sheep  for  scab,  lice,  and  ticks.     Plans  and  specifications 

1  Suggestions  with  regard  to  handling  sheep,  use  of  the  score  card,  estimating  the  age 
of  sheep,  grading  wool,  and  comparative  judging  will  be  found  in  Department  Bulletin  593, 
Judging  Sheep  as  a  Subject  of  Instruction  in  Secondary  Schools. 


for  dipping  vats  and  directions  for  dipping  may  bo  obtained  from  Farmers' 
Bulletin  713,  Sheep  Scab. 

Docking  and  castration. — Although  the  secondary  school  may  not  attempt  any 
technical  training  in  veterinary  practice,  it  should  give  practical  instruction  in 
preventing  disease  and  in  the  minor  operations  ordinarily  performed  on  the 
farm.  The  instructor  who  has  had  training  in  this  work  will  not  hesitate  to 
demonstrate  to  his  students  proper  methods  of  docking  and  castrating  lambs 
and  then  give  them  an  opportunity  to  do  the  work  by  themselves  under  his 
direction.  Directions  for  both  operations  are  given  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  840, 
Farm  Sheep  Raising  for  Beginners. 

Trimming  and  shearing. — If  the  instructor  has  not  had  training  in  trimming 
or  shearing  it  may  be  possible  to  secure  the  services  of  an  expert  to  demon- 
strate proper  methods  to  the  students  and  get  them  started  along  the  right 
lines  in  practical  work.  The  work  in  trimming  should  be  done  in  connection 
with  a  consideration  of  fitting  the  sheep  for  the  show  ring  which  may  be  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  practice  in  judging.  Practice  in  shearing  is  most 
important  for  the  majority  of  students.  It  will  not  be  possible  in  the  time 
available  to  develop  speed  and  expert  skill,  but  it  should  be  possible  to  show 
the  students  how  to  do  it  properly  and  encourage  them  to  develop  skill  as  op- 
portunity is  afforded. 

THE   HOME   PROJECT. 

Mutton  and  wool  production. — The  present  high  prices  of  both  wool  and 
mutton  with  the  passing  of  a  large  part  of  the  sheep  industry  from  the  ranges 
of  the  West  are  creating  a  new  interest  in  sheep  husbandry*  on  the  farm.  As 
success  with  sheep  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  learning  their  habits  and 
needs  in  an  intimate  way.  it  is  well  for  future  shepherds  to  get  an  early  start. 
It  is  comparatively  easy  to  get  a  start  with  sheep,  hence  a  beginning  in  prac- 
tical sheep  husbandry  makes  an  excellent  home  project  for  students  unfavorable 
sections.  Such  a  project  should  afford  a  good  basis  for  much  of  a  general 
course  in  animal  husbandry. 

As  a  beginning  project  in  most  cases  it  will  be  best  for  the  student  to  under- 
take the  care  of  a  number  of  ewes  for  the  production  of  lambs  for  the  market 
or  the  fattening  of  feeders  with  the  production  of  mutton  as  the  primary  aim. 
The  production  of  wool  and  the  selection  of  ewes  as  breeders  may  be  incidental 
to  the  main  project.  If  this  work  is  to  constitute  a  major  project,  there  should 
be  at  least  6  ewes,  if  the  start  is  made  with  ewes,  or  10  lambs  or  feeders 
if  it  is  merely  a  feeding  proposition.  The  experience  growing  out  of  such  a 
project  will  enable  the  student  to  determine  whether  he  desires  to  go  into  sheep 
husbandry  and  will  give  him  some  experience  useful  in  developing  a  breeding 
flock.  If  the  student  is  on  a  farm  where  sheep  are  raised,  it  may  be  possible 
for  him  to  take  over  the  care  of  the  farm  flock  or  to  have  some  of  the  sheep  to 
feed  and  manage  upon  his  own  account. 

Developing  a  breeding  flock. — The  aim  of  the  instructor  in  getting  a  student 
to  take  hold  of  sheep  on  a  farm  suited  to  sheep  husbandry  should  be  to  have 
him  develop  a  flock  as  a  permanent  proposition.  Although  he  may  work  into 
the  business  gradually,  it  should  be  with  high  ideals  and  with  an  idea  of  in- 
creasing the  flock  toward  the  maximum  capacity  of  the  farm  as  fast  as  his 
training  and  time  will  permit.  The  student  may  start  with  grade  ewes,  but 
if  the  work  of  the  school  is  effective  he  will  not  be  satisfied  unless  he  is 
working  toward  pure-bred  stock.  Although  producing  animals  for  breeding 
purposes  calls  for  a  high  degree  of  intelligence  and  adaptability  to  the  work 
at  hand,  it  is  just  this  sort  of  farming  for  which  our  students  should  be 
prepared. 

The  following  outline  is  suggested  for  a  project  in  which  the  primary  aim  is 
mutton  and  wool  production,  but  in  which  the  supposition  is  made  that  the 
student  will  work  toward  developing  a  breeding  flock. 

SHEEP   PROJECT   STUDY   OUTLINE 

I.  What  are  the  present  prospects  for  profitable  sheep  husbandry  in  this 
section? 

1.  Is  this  section  suited  especially  to  sheep  raising? 

2.  May  I  use  any  of  our  farm  for  sheep  which  is  not  now  profitable? 

3.  What  are  the  local  market  demands? 


4.  What  are  the  facilities  for  shipping? 

5.  How  do  the  prices  paid  for  mutton  and  wool  compare  with  the 

prices  of  hay  and  grain? 

6.  Can  an  abundance  of  cheap  forage  be  raised? 

7.  Have  disease  and  pests  proven  serious? 

8.  What  trouble  may  be  expected  with  dogs? 

9.  May  good  stock  be  secured  at  a  reasonable  price? 

10.  What  returns  may  be  expected  from  sheep  in  this  section? 

11.  What  are  the  advantages  claimed  for  sheep  husbandry  in  con- 

nection with  general  farm  management? 

12.  Do  I  like  sheep  and  have  a  desire  to  become  proficient  in  their 

management? 
II.  How  shall  I  get  a  start  with  sheep? 

1.  What  shall  be  my  aim  in  raising  sheep? 

2.  What  is  the  best  season  for  making  a  start? 

3.  What  is  the  advantage  in  starting  with  grade  ewes? 

4.  Why  is  it  advisable  for  the  farmers  of  a  community  to  raise  the 

same  breed? 

5.  Why  should  only  pure-bred  rams  be  used  in  the  community? 

6.  What  is  the  best  age  at  which  to  purchase  breeding  ewes? 

7.  What   advantage  is  there  in  securing  ewes  that  have  lambed 

once? 

8.  How  can  the  age  of  the  ewes  be  determined? 

9.  How  many  ewes  shall  I  secure  for  a  start? 

10.  Why  is  it  best  to  start  in  a  relatively  small  way? 

11.  Why  is  a  larger  flock  more  economical  in  an  established  business? 

III.  What  breed  shall  I  select? 

1.  What  breeds  are  best  suited  for  the  production  of  fine  wool? 

2.  What  breeds  are  best  suited  for  the  production  of  coarse  wTool? 

3.  What  are  the  best  mutton  breeds? 

4.  How  may  the  leading  mutton  breeds  be  distinguished? 

5.  What  is  the  breed  most  popular  in  this  section? 

6.  Is  this  breed  well  suited  to  the  section  and  to  my  particular 

needs? 

7.  What  are  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  breed  I  shall  breed? 

8.  Can  I  select  individuals  representing  the  best  breed  type? 

IV.  Can  I  select  good  breeding  animals? 

1.  What  different  qualities  shall  be  considered  in  selecting  sheep 

by  the  breeder  and  by  the  butcher? 

2.  Why  is  sex  character  important  in  breeding  animals? 

3.  What  are  the  main  points  showing  sex  character  to  be  sought  in 

breeding  ewes? 

4.  What  are  the  main  points  showing  sex  character  to  be  sought 

in  breeding  rams? 

5.  In  what  sort  of  condition  should  the  breeding  animals  be? 

6.  Where  can  I  secure  such  animals  as  will  fit  my  needs? 

7.  What  price  should  such  animals  be  worth? 
V.  What  equipment  will  I  need  for  raising  sheep? 

1.  Can  I  remodel  a  part  of  existing  barns  or  sheds  that  will  be 

suitable  for  my  sheep? 

2.  Can  I  plan  an  ideal  barn  or  shed  for  this  section? 

3.  What  are  the  essential  features  to  be  provided  in  a  building  for 

sheep  ? 

4.  Can  I  make  such  feed  racks  and  grain  troughs  as  will  be  re- 

quired for  my  sheep? 

5.  What  equipment  will  be  needed  in  taking  proper  care  of  the  ewes 

at  time  of  lambing? 

6.  What  are  "creeps"  and  how  are  they  used? 

7.  What  are  the  specifications  of  a  good  dog-proof  fence? 

8.  How  are  hurdles  used  for  sheep? 

9.  How  can  a  good  hurdle  be  made? 

10.  What  device  makes  the  best  temporary  sheep  fence? 

11.  Will  I  need  to  build  a  dipping  vat  or  may  I  have  the  use  of  a  vat 

in  the  community? 

12.  What  provision  must  I  make  for  watering  my  sheep? 

13.  What  hand  tools  will  I  need  in  caring  for  my  sheep  properly? 


VI.  Do  I  understand  how  to  handle  sheep? 

1.  Why  is  it  especially    important    that    sheep    shall    be    handled 

gently  and  quietly? 

2.  What  is  the  best  way  to  catch  a  sheep? 

3.  How  should  sheep  be  led  or  moved  from  place  to  place? 

4.  How  can  a  sheep  be  set  upon  its  rump? 

5.  What  is  the  host  way  to  load  a  sheep  into  a  wagon? 

6.  How  is  a  crate  made  which  will  be  suitable  for  shipping  sheep? 
VII.  Can  I  give  breeding  sheep  proper  care? 

1.  At  what  age  should  ewes  be  bred? 

2.  What  is  the  period  of  gestation  in  sheep? 

3.  At  what  time  shall  I  breed  my  ewes? 

4.  How  can  the  time  for  breeding  be  determined? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  4"  flushing  "  ewes? 

6.  Why  should  the  ewes  be  gaining  in  weight  at  time  of  breeding? 

7.  What    feeds    are    considered    good    for    supplementing    ordinary 

pasture  at  this  time? 

8.  Under  what  conditions  may  a  ram  lamb  be  used  for  breeding? 

9.  What  is  the  advantage  in  confining  a  breeding  ram? 

10.  How  should  a  ram  be  managed  under  such  conditions? 

11.  What  methods  are  used  to  determine  when  the  ewes  are  bred? 

12.  Why  should  careful  records  be  kept  of  the  breeding? 
VIII.  Can  I  feed  my  sheep  at  all  seasons  for  the  best  results? 

1.  How  can  the  need  for  feed  be  determined  by  the  condition  of  the 

sheep  ? 

2.  What  feeds  will  serve  best  for  breeding  sheep  in  the  fall? 

3.  How  may  sheep  be  used  to  advantage  in  cleaning  up  the  farm  at 

this  time? 

4.  What  sort  of  roughage  is  best  for  winter  feeding? 

5.  Why  is  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  better  than  cornstalks  or  timothy 

for  feeding  sheep? 

6.  What  sort  of  feeds  should  be  used  to  supplement  straw  and  corn- 

stalks? 

7.  Why  is  some  succulent  feed  necessary? 

8.  What  precautions  must  be  taken  with  such  feeds  as  turnips  and 

corn  silage? 

9.  With   the  feeds   I   have   available  can   I   work  out   satisfactory 

rations  for  my  breeding  ewes? 

10.  What  is  the  best  pasture  for  sheep  in  this  section? 

11.  What  forage  crops  may  be  used  as  a  satisfactory  supplement  to 

or  supplement  for  summer  pasture? 

12.  Why  should  forage  crops  be  used  for  ewe  lambs  saved  through 

the  summer  for  breeding? 
IX.  What  are  the  most  important  phases  of  general  care  to  be  given  attention? 

1.  What  form  of  protection  must  be   given  most  consideration  in 

winter? 

2.  Why  is  dampness  more  harmful  to  sheep  than  cold? 

3.  What  provision  should  be  made  for  exercise  in  winter? 

4.  What  special  care  and  attention  should  be  given  pregnant  ewes? 

5.  What  provisions  do  the  State  laws  make  with  relation  to  sheep- 

killing  dogs? 

6.  What   precautions    should    be   taken    where    dogs    may    prove    a 

menace  ? 

7.  What  provisions   must   be   made  for   a    supply    of   fresh   water 

and  salt? 

8.  How  may  bloating  be  avoided? 

9  What  may  be  done  in  a  case  of  bloatincr? 
X.  Do  I  understand  how  to  control  parasites  and  prevent  disease  of  sheep? 

1.  What  is  the  cause  of  sheep  scab? 

2.  What  are  the  symptoms  of  this  trouble? 

3.  How  may  real  sheep  scab  be  detected  from  other  similar  troubles? 

4.  Why  is  prompt  control  extremely  important? 

5.  How  is  the  disease  transmitted? 

6.  Under  what  conditions  is  hand  dressing  .iustified? 

7.  What  would  be  the  most  economical  means  of  getting  my  sheep 

dipped  if  the  disease  should  occur? 


8.  Do  I  understand  the  means  and  methods  of  dipping? 

9.  How  should  the  premises  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  to  prevent 

its  spread? 

10.  What  is  the  nature  of  stomach  worms? 

11.  Why  is  a  knowledge  of  their  life  history  important  to  the  sheep 

man? 

12.  What  are  the  symptoms  of  trouble  caused  by  stomach  worms? 

13.  What  is  the  most  efficient  means  of  prevention  and  control  of 

stomach  worms? 

14.  What  means  may  be  taken  to  prevent  foot  rot? 

15.  Where    may    I    secure    definite    information    concerning    sheep 

troubles? 
XI.  Can  I  manage  my  ewes  properly  at  lambing  time? 

1.  Why  should  close  attention  be  given  ewes  at  this  time? 

2.  Why   should  heavy  feeding  be  withheld  from  ewes  just  before 

lambing? 

3.  What  are  the  indications  that  this  time  is  approaching? 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  of  individual  lambing  pens  made  of 

open  panels? 

5.  What  special  precautions  should  be  made  in  very  cold  weather? 

6.  How  may  the  ewe  be  aided  if  lambing  is  abnormal? 

7.  What  aid  may  be  given  weak  lambs  or  lambs  that  may  become 

chilled? 

8.  What  may  be  done  in  case  a  ewe  disowns  a  lamb? 

9.  What  aid  may  be  given  a. lamb  in  case  of  constipation  or  indi- 

gestion ? 

10.  What  treatment  should  be  given  for  sore  eyes  and  sore  mouths? 

11.  What  is  the  best  time  and  the  best  method  for  docking  lambs? 

12.  What  is  the  best  time  and  the  best  method  for  castrating  the 

male  lambs? 

13.  Why  is  it  important  to  watch  the  condition  of  the  ewes  and  take 

particular  care  in  their  feeding  while  the  lambs  are  sucking? 

14.  How  may  the  lambs  be  marked  for  identification? 

15.  Why  should  careful  records  be  kept  of  lambs  which  may  be  used 

for  breeding  purposes? 
XII.  How  shall  I  prepare  the  lambs  for  market? 

1.  Why  is  it  most  profitable  to  market  the  lambs  early? 

2.  What  special  efforts  should  be  made  to  keep  the  lambs  growing 

from  the  start? 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  best  feeds  to  use  in  getting  the  lamb 

started  to  eat? 

4.  What  special  precautions  should  be  taken  to  have  the  food  clean 

and  what  may  be  done  to  increase  its  palatability? 

5.  What  are  the  advantages  in  having  lambs  come  after  the  ewes 

have  gone  on  pasture  and  raising  them  on  pasture  alone? 

6.  What  are  the  disadvantages  of  the  plan? 

7.  What  plan  is  followed  to  avoid  stomach  worms? 

8.  How  are  the  lambs  fed  and  managed  when  they  alone  are  kept 

in  the  dry  lot? 

9.  What  are  the  advantages  of  keeping  both  ewes  and  lambs  in  the 

dry  lot? 

10.  What  crops  are  best  suited  to  soiling  in  the  dry  lot? 

11.  How  are  the  sheep  managed  under  this  system? 

12.  Under   what   conditions   is  the  forage  crop   method  popular   in 

fattening  lambs? 

13.  What  forage  crops  and  what  method  of  rotation  and  management 

of  such  crop  would  be  best  suited  to  the  section? 
XIII.  How  shall  I  market  my  lambs  and  wool? 

1.  Why  should  the  lambs  be  marketed  as  early  as  possible? 

2.  At  what  age  will  the  lambs  be  marketed  to  good  advantage? 

3.  How  may  I  best  keep  in  touch  with  market  conditions? 

4.  Do  I  understand   the  important   market  classes  ,and   grades  of 

sheep? 

5.  Is  there  an  opportunity  to  secure  full  value  on  the  local  market? 

6.  May  I  cooperate  with  others  in  shipping  to  a  distant  market? 


7.  Do  I  understand  the  important  market  classes  and  grades  of 

wool  ? 
S.  Will  it  pay  as  a  rule  to  sell  the  wool  at  shearing  time  or  hold  for 

higher  prices? 

CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION. 

Use  of  reference  material. — Although  most  of  the  general  textbooks  on  animal 
husbandry  deal  with  sheep,  none  of  them  treat  the  subject  as  extensively  as 
may  be  desirable  in  a  section  especially  favored  for  sheep.  While  the  special 
-  on  sheep  are  best  suited  to  such  special  courses  as  are  given  in  colleges, 
one  or  more  of  these  books  should  be  included  in  the  high-school  library  to  be 
used  for  reference  purposes.  The  publications  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture listed  at  the  end  of  this  document  will  serve  well  for  the  class  and  for 
special  assignments  to  individual  students.  A  number  of  the  State  colleges 
have  issued  excellent  expository  bulletins  on  sheep,  which  should  be  used  in 
adapting  the  instruction  to  meet  local  conditions. 

Although  the  project  study  outline  given  on  the  preceding  pages  is  intended 
primarily  to  guide  the  student  who  has  a  project  in  making  an  individual  study 
of  the  subject,  it  should  be  suggestive  of  a  general  consideration  of  the  subject 
in  the  classroom.  For  a  comprehensive  reference  for  the  subject,  one  that  may 
serve  as  a  text,  Department  Bulletin  20,  The  Management  of  Sheep  on  the  Farm, 
is  recommended.  Farmers'  Bulletin  840,  Farm  Sheep  Raising  for  Beginners, 
will  also  serve  well  for  the  same  purpose  if  supplemented  with  the  following 
Farmers'  Bulletins:  652,  The  Sheep-Killing  Dog;  713,  Sheep  Scab,  and  810, 
Equipment  for  Farm  Sheep  Raising. 

Z~se  of  illustrative  material. — The  work  of  the  classroom  will  lack  vitality  if 
it  is  not  connected  very  closely  with  the  practical  work  of  the  students  and 
with  the  sheep  industry  of  the  community.  The  instructor  with  the  aid  of  the 
students  should  make  a  survey  of  the  district  with  regard  to  its  sheep  interests 
as  a  means  of  knowing  the  practices  common  in  the  section  and  of  locating  ma- 
terial to  be  used  in  teaching.  Field  trips  should  be  planned  for  the  purpose  of 
bringing  the  students  into  close  touch  with  the  methods  of  the  best  farmers  as 
well  as  to  give  them  practice  suggested  previously.  Inasmuch  as  the  very  best 
stock  is  often  sent  to  the  fairs,  the  teacher  should  seek  opportunity  to  visit 
them  with  his  students  for  the  definite  purpose  of  seeing  good  stock  and  getting 
in  closer  touch  with  the  best  breeders  and  judges  and  learning  something  of 
their  methods.  In  connection  with  a  study  of  market  demands  and  methods  of 
shipment  visits  should  also  be  made  to  packing  houses  and  shipping  points,  if 
such  are  convenient.  If  this  department  or  the  State  college  has  established 
demonstration  sheep  farms  near  the  school,  it  should  be  used  by  the  class. 

Although  all  schools  will  not  be  favorably  situated  with  regard  to  good 
sheep  farms  and  fairs,  all  teachers  will  be  able  to  secure  good  illustrations  to 
aid  in  visualizing  the  lessons  given.  Illustrations  from  the  best  papers  and 
catalogues  should  be  supplemented  with  charts  and  blackboard  illustrations 
showing  the  conformation  of  types  and  naming  of  parts  of  animals  in  connec- 
tion with  judging,  and  plans  of  buildings,  pens,  and  other  equipment  in  connec- 
tion with  management.  Along  with  a  study  of  wool,  samples  from  the  various 
types  of  sheep  taken  from  different  parts  of  the  body  should  be  collected  to  be  a 
part  of  the  permanent  school  exhibit.  It  may  be  possible  to  secure  from  manu- 
facturers samples  showing  market  grades  and  classes  of  wool,  and  the  steps 
represented  in  its  manufacture  into  yarn  and  cloth. 

II.  GOATS. 

POSSIBILITIES  IN   GOATS. 

The  present  shortage  of  milk  and  the  national  movement  to  utilize  all  the 
land  possible  for  food  production  is  bringing  the  attention  of  thoughtful  people 
to  the  possibilities  in  milk  goats.  Thousands  of  acres  of  vacant  lots  in  and 
near  our  American  cities  and  great  tracts  of  unused  land  in  the  country 
might  support  goats  which  would  in  many  cases  supply  a  need  for  milk  which 
at  this  time  is  acute  among  the  poorer  classes.  A  good  goat  will  furnish  fresh 
milk  for  a  family  which  could  not  afford  to  keep  a  cow,  and  in  many  cases  live 
on  laud  and  forage  that  would  otherwise  be  wasted.  The  lives  of  many  infants 
might  be  saved  if  a  fresh  supply  of  goats'  milk  were  available.  Although  the 
American  people  are  awakening  to  an  appreciation  of  milk  goats,  the  greatest 


8 

difficulty  at  the  present  time  is  in  meeting  the  demand  for  good  animals.     It 
should  be  borne  in  mind  also  that  goats'  meat  is  nearly  equal  to  mutton. 

The  production  of  goats'  milk  and  the  raising  of  goats  for  production  and 
breeding  purposes  fits  in  well  with  the  home-project  plan.  Many  boys  and  girls 
living  in  towns  or  near  the  larger  cities  can  keep  a  goat  who  could  not  keep  a 
pig.  Goats,  if  properly  treated,  make  excellent  pets,  and  inasmuch  as  they 
are  not  raised  primarily  to  be  killed  for  meat  production  no  difficulties  arise 
when  the  boys  and  girls  develop  them  as  pets.  Although  the  caring  for  one 
goat  for  family  milk  production  should  be  accepted  as  a  suitable  minor  project 
in  animal  husbandry,  the  students  should  be  encouraged  to  develop  the  work  in 
a  commercial  way  as  far  as  their  resources  will  permit.  The  production  of 
milk  for  the  feeding  of  infants  and  invalids  will  furnish  an  excellent  ideal 
toward  which  to  work,  as  it  offers  opportunity  not  only  for  the  application  of 
science  and  the  development  of  good  business  training  but  also  an  opportunity 
for  a  much  needed  public  service.  Students  who  are  desirous  of  working  into 
the  dairy  business  will  be  able  to  secure  training  in  the  care  and  handling  of 
milk  and  in  developing  a  trade  which  they  may  apply  later  to  a  dairy  where 
cows'  milk  is  handled.  The  experience  gained  in  feeding  and  in  breeding  goats 
will  also  prove  of  value  in  handling  cows  and  other  animals. 

GETTING  A  START. 

As  milk  goats  are  abundant  in  very  few  sections,  the  student  must  take 
what  he  can  get.  Pure-bred  animals  may  not  be  procurable  in  the  district  or 
their  price  may  be  beyond  the  reach  of  the  student  in  getting  a  start.  As  a 
rule,  it  will  not  be  worth  while  to  make  an  effort  toward  milk  production  un- 
less there  is  a  male  of  good  breeding  available  for  service  in  the  district.  If 
the  services  of  a  buck  of  a  good  milking  strain  are  available,  a  start  may  be 
made  with  a  common  doe  with  a  tendency  toward  good  milk  production  or  with 
grade  kids.  Public-spirited  bankers  and  others  have  given  financial  aid  in 
getting  pigs  of  good  breeding  for  the  boys'  and  girls'  projects.  Perhaps  some  of 
these  men  or  doctors  who  are  interested  in  securing  better  milk  for  babies  and 
invalids  may  aid  in  getting  pure  bred  milk  goats  into  the  community.  If  the 
teacher  of  agriculture  will  make  known  the  possibilities  in  milk  goats  of  good 
breeding,  an  effective  appeal  may  be  made  to  both  citizens  and  students  to  use 
them  for  what  they  are  worth  in  helping  to  meet  the  present  food  situation 
and  in  developing  economical  production  for  the  future. 

GOAT  PROJECT  STUDY  OUTLINE. 

I.  Shall  I  go  into  milk  goats  as  a  project? 

1.  What  possibilities  are  there  for  raising  goats  in  this  section? 

2.  Is  there  a  special  demand  for  goats'  milk? 

3.  Is  it  not  possible  to  develop  a  market  for  goats'  milk  for  feeding 

invalids  and  infants? 

4.  Will  I  be  able  to  secure  suitable  stock  with  which  to  start? 

5.  What  are  the  prospects  for  securing  and  using  vacant  lots  or 

waste  land  suitable  for  pastures? 

6.  Will  there  be  any  opportunity  to  work  into  the  raising  of  pure- 

bred goats  for  breeding  purposes? 

7.  What  possibilities  are  there  for  renting  goats? 
II.  What  type  and  breed  of  goats  shall  I  select? 

1.  Why  should  an  effort  be  made  to  secure  goats  bred  especially  for 

milk  production? 

2.  What  breeds  of  milk  goats  have  been  established  in  the  United 

States? 

3.  What  are  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  Swiss  goats 

which  have  been  brought  to  this  country? 

4.  What   characteristics   of  the  Nubian  breed  justifies  its  consid- 

eration? 

5.  Is  it  possible  to  find  individuals  among  common  does  in  which 

milk  production  is  developed? 

6.  Will  it  be  possible  for  me  to  obtain  pure-bred  does  as  a  basis 

for  a  breeding  herd? 

7.  How  may  I  go  about  to  develop  a  good  herd  from  common  does? 

8.  Do  I  know  the  characteristics  of  both  does  and  bucks  of  the  milk 

type? 


9.  Are  there  pure-bred  bucks  of  good  type  in  the  district  available 
for  community  service? 

10.  How  do  prices  range  for  pure-bred  bucks,  does,  and  kids?     For 

common  goats  and  grades? 

11.  Where  may  I  get  definite  information  concerning  pure-bred  goats 

and  their  breeders? 
III.  Can  I  manage  goats  properly  in  breeding? 

1.  When  is  the  best  time  to  select  does  for  breeding? 

2.  What  points  should  be  considered  especially  in  does  for  breed- 

ing? 

3.  At  what  age  are  does  at  their  best  for  breeding? 

4.  At  what  time  should  the  does  freshen? 

5.  When  should  the  does  be  bred  to  secure  kids  in  the  fall  and  in 

the  spring? 

6.  Is  it  always  possible  to  have  does  kid  in  the  fall? 

7.  How  many  kids  may  be  expected  at  a  time? 

8.  What  special  care  should  be  given  a  breeding  buck? 

IV.  Do   I   understand   proper   feeding  and   general  management  of   mature 
goats? 

1.  What  is  a  good  ration  for  bucks  when  off  pasture? 

2.  Under  what  conditions  may  goats  be  used  on  brush  land?     In 

orchards? 

3.  What  relation  is  there  to  the  feeding  of  goats  for  milk  production 

to  the  feeding  of  cows  for  the  same  purpose? 

4.  Why  is  roughage  and  some  succulent  feed  essential?    What  feeds 

are  desirable  for  this  purpose? 

5.  What  grain  feeds  will  be  most  economical  in  this  section?    How 

much  grain  should  be  fed  during  the  winter  season?    When  on 
pasture? 

6.  Why  must  the  individuality  of  the  goats  be  considered  in  feeding? 

7.  What  provisions  should  be  made  for  exercise? 

8.  What  precautions  should  be  taken  in  order  to  have  food  clean 

and  wholesome? 

9.  What  provisions  are  made  for  salting? 

10.  What  provisions  must  be  made  for  fresh  water? 
V.  Do  I  understand  the  proper  care  and  feeding  of  kids? 

1.  Why  is  it  most  satisfactory  to  allow  the  kids  suckle  their  dams? 

2.  What  advantage  is  there  in  rearing  kids  dropped  in  the  spring  as 

compared  with  those  born  in  the  fall? 

3.  How  much  milk  do  the  kids  require? 

4.  How  may  the  kids  be  fed  successfully  on  cows'  milk? 

5.  Why  should  they  have  the  milk  first  given  by  the  mother? 

6.  What  is  the  best  age  for  removing  kids  from  the  mother? 

7.  At  what  age  may  the  kids  be  weaned? 

8.  Why  are  alfalfa  and  clover  hays  to  be  recommended? 

9.  What  is  a  good  grain  ration  for  the  kids? 

10.  What  provisions  should  be  made  for  their  exercise? 

11.  When  and  how  should  the  male  kids  be  castrated? 

12.  For  what  purposes  are  the  castrated  male  kids  used? 

13.  How  are  the  kids  marked  for  identification? 

14.  How  may  goats  be  treated  for  lice? 

15.  How  are  matured  goats  dehorned?     How  may  the  horns  be  pre- 

vented from  developing  on  the  kids? 

16.  What  is  the  best  method  of  trimming  the  hoofs? 

17.  What  kind  of  a  fence  is  best  for  goat  inclosures? 
VI.  Do  I  understand  the  more  common  troubles  of  goats? 

1.  How  do  goats  compare  with  other  farm  animals  in  regard  to 

health? 

2.  What  are  the  symptoms  of  stomach  worms? 

3.  How  may  these  parasites  be  prevented? 

4.  How    is    the    gasoline    treatment    given?      The   copper    sulphate 

treatment  ? 

5.  What  are  the  symptoms  of  takosis  and  Malta  fever,  and  where 

can   I   secure   definite   information   concerning   these   diseases 
should  they  occur? 

6.  What  is  the  difference  between  ordinary  abortion  and  contagious 

abortion?    How  should  abortion  be  treated? 


10 

7.  What  is  a  satisfactory  method  of  treating  constipation? 

8.  How  are  caked  udder  and  sore  teats  handled? 

9.  What  are  the  causes  and  the  method  of  treatment  of  foot  rot? 
VII.  Can  I  handle  the  milk  properly  and  turn  out  a  first-class  product? 

1.  What  is  considered  a  good  lactation  period  for  goats? 

2.  What  factors  influence  the  length  of  the  lactation  period? 

3.  What  equipment  should  be  provided  for  the  milking  of  goats? 

4.  What  precautions  should  be  taken  to  be  sure  of  securing  clean 

milk? 

5.  Why  should  not  goats  be  milked  in  the  same  room  where  they 

are  kept? 

6.  What  are  the  advantages  claimed  for  each  system  of  milking? 

7.  How  soon  may  the  milk  be  used  after  kidding? 

8.  Why  are  regularity  and   kindness   so   essential   to   the   handling 

and  milking  of  goats? 

9.  Why  should  the  milk  be  weighed  and  accurate  records  kept? 

10.  What  is  the  best  method  of  straining  the  milk? 

11.  Why  should  the  milk  be  cooled  immediately?    How  is  the  cooling 

accomplished? 

12.  How  are  the  milk  utensils  handled  to  assure  cleanliness? 
VIII.  What  other  products  may  be  obtained  from  a  herd  of  goats? 

1.  What  is  the  nature  and  value  of  butter  from  goats'  milk? 

2.  How  is  cheese  made  from  goats'  milk? 

3.  How  does  the  goat  compare  with  the  sheep  as  a  meat-producing 

animal? 

4.  How  does  the  goat  meat  compare  with  mutton  in  quality? 

5.  Of  what  use  are  skins  and  what  is  their  value? 

CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION. 

Based  on  project  outline. — In  connection  with  a  study  of  sheep  husbandry  in 
some  sections  some  time  may  be  given  with  profit  to  a  consideration  of  milk 
goats  if  one  or  more  students  have  selected  the  keeping  of  goats  as  a  home 
project.  Perhaps  the  consideration  given  the  subject  will  arouse  interest  and 
show  the  possibilities  in  such  a  project.  Such  a  project  furnishes  a  good  basis 
for  consideration  in  the  classroom,  as  it  supplies  a  guide  as  to  the  practice  and 
that  which  will  apply  to  local  conditions. 

Use  of  reference  material. — Students  who  have  goat  projects  should  be  en- 
couraged to  secure  one  of  the  special  journals  devoted  to  goats  and  other  publi- 
cations. The  lessons  given  to  the  class  as  a  whole  may  be  based  upon  Farmers' 
Bulletin  920,  Milk  Goats.  In  case  there  is  little  time  for  the  whole  class  to 
consider  the  subject  this  bulletin  may  be  assigned  to  a  student  who  is  interested 
to  make  a  special  report  to  the  class. 

Suggestions  regarding  the  treatment  of  topics  with  regard  to  both  classroom 
instruction  and  home  projects  follow. 

A  study  of  types  and  breeds. — Much  can  be  done  to  arouse  interest  in  goats 
by  making  the  students  acquainted  with  something  better  than  the  common 
goats  they  have  known.  If  there  are  any  herds  of  pure-bred  goats  in  the  com- 
munity, they  should  be  utilized  as  far  as  possible  in  connection  with  a  study  of 
types  and  breeds.  Good  illustrations  will  be  helpful  in  showing  ideals  and  to 
serve  in  the  absence  of  the  living  animals.  In  connection  with  a  study  of  the 
milk  type  it  will  prove  helpful  to  have  the  students  make  up  a  score  card  as  a 
class  problem.  Cards  for  sheep  and  for  the  dairy  cow  will  be  suggestive  of 
form  and  arrangement.  Practice  in  the  use  of  the  score  card  and  in  compara- 
tive judging  should  be  given  wherever  there  is  time  and  material  is  available. 

Management  of  breeding  animals. — Goats  kept  as  pets  or  in  connection  with 
a  production  project  furnish  an  excellent  basis  for  learning  the  general  princi- 
ples of  breeding.  If  a  student  has  to  pay  twice  as  much  for  goat  No.  1  as  for 
goat  No.  2  because  the  first  goat  represents  better  breeding,  the  law  of  heredity 
will  appeal  to  him  in  a  new  light.  Again,  if  he  is  to  retain  one  of  two  kids  for 
milk  production  or  for  breeding  purposes,  the  principle  of  selection  will  mean 
more  than  a  mere  abstract  statement.  Emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  such 
practical  points  as  the  proper  age  for  breeding,  the  periods  of  heat,  the  gesta- 
tion period,  and  the  care  of  the  doe  at  time  of  kidding. 

Feeding  and  management. — In  connection  with  this  topic  also  there  is  an  ap- 
plication of  general  principles  to  a  particular  practice.     Inasmuch  as  the  gen- 


11 

eral  principles  of  animal  feeding  have  been  worked  out  previously,  the  time  may 
be  taken  in  a  consideration  of  the  particular  problems  of  feeding  goats.  The 
feeds  and  feeding  practice  discussed  in  connection  with  sheep  husbandry  will 
form  a  good  basis  for  comparison  for  general  feeding  and  the  feeding  of  dairy 
cows  a  basis  for  the  feeding  of  does  for  milk  production.  In  connection  with 
general  management  special  attention  should  be  given  the  matter  of  cleanliness 
and  sanitation,  as  the  students  will  likely  keep  goats  around  the  home.  Inas- 
much as  they  are  very  apt  to  start  with  kids  and  the  care  of  the  young  kids 
is  rather  critical,  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  the  details  of  their  care  and 
management.  If  goats  are  kept  near  the  school  for  commercial  purposes,  a  visit 
to  the  farm  should  prove  profitable.  The  students  should  make  definite  inquiry 
and  take  notes  upon  all  phases  of  practice  in  feeding  and  management.  Inas- 
much as  many  of  the  common  goat  troubles  are  similar  to  those  of  sheep,  the 
consideration  of  goat  diseases  may  come  very  well  in  connection  with  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  diseases  of  sheep. 

Care  and  handling  of  milk. — As  the  principles  and  practice  connected  with 
the  care  and  handling  of  goats'  milk  do  not  differ  from  those  concerned  with 
the  production  of  clean  cows'  milk,  this  phase  of  the  work  may  be  considered  a 
part  of  the  work  in  dairying.  If  dairy  husbandry  does  not  come  in  the  same 
year,  it  will  be  necessary  to  review  briefly  the  principles  involved  in  handling 
milk  in  the  application  to  the  care  of  goats'  milk. 

One  of  the  problems  in  giving  practical  instruction  in  dairying  in  the  ordinary 
high  school  is  to  secure  a  regular  supply  of  milk  for  a  small  dairy  or  laboratory 
so  essential  to  practical  training.  It  is  impractical  for  most  of  these  schools 
to  keep  cows  or  to  operate  a  dairy  sufficiently  large  to  take  the  milk  of  regular 
patrons  in  a  commercial  way.  Keeping  one  mr  more  milk  goats  at  the  school 
would  not  only  insure  a  regular  supply  of  milk  for  dairy  work,  but  would  also 
give  a  concrete  basis  for  other  work  in  animal  husbandry  such  as  feeding  and 
breeding. 

SCHOOL  AND   HOME  PRACTICUMS. 

If  there  are  a  sufficient  number  of  students  interested  and  material  near  the 
school  for  practice,  the  laboratory  time  of  the  entire  class  may  be  taken  in  such 
practical  work  with  goats  as  suggested  for  sheep.  Such  work  may  include 
(a)  a  use  of  the  score  card,  (&)  comparative  judging,  (c)  removal  of  horns, 
and  (d)  shearing  and  trimming  (where  Angora  goats  are  involved).  As  sug- 
gested in  the  previous  paragraph,  the  practical  work  may  also  include  such 
exercises  in  dairying  as:  {a)  Use  of  the  Babcock  test,  (b)  use  of  the  sediment 
test,  and  (c)  making  butter  and  cheese.  If  there  is  neither  sufficient  time  nor 
interest  general  enough  to  take  the  time  of  the  whole  class  for  such  work, 
assignments  for  individual  home  practicums  should  be  made  to  students  having 
an  interest  and  facilities  for  doing  the  work  and  credit  given  for  such  work 
when  well  done  as  a  part  of  the  course. 

THE   ANGORA    GOAT. 

In  nearly  all  sections  of  the  United  States  there  are  sections  adapted  to  the 
Angora  goat  and  the  production  of  mohair.  The  raising  of  these  goats  will 
also  make  excellent  home  projects  for  students  living  on  farms  adapted  to  this 
industry.  The  directions  given  for  classroom  instruction,  home  projects  and 
practicums  in  connection  with  milk  goats  and  sheep  may  be  adapted  to  the 
Angora.  Plans  and  outlines  for  both  lessons  and  projects  may  be  made  up 
with  the  material  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  573.  The  Angora  Goat,  as  a  basis  for 
subject  matter. 

REFERENCES. 

The  following  Farmers'  Bulletins  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture (available  for  free  distribution  by  the  department)  : 
573.  The  Angora  Goat. 
576.  Breeds  of  Sheep  for  the  Farm. 
713.  Sheep  Scab. 

810.  Equipment  for  Farm  Sheep  Raising. 
840.  Farm  Sheep  Raising  for  Beginners. 
920.  Milk  Goats. 
935.  The  Sheep-Killing  Dog. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  FLORIDA 


12  3  1262  08928  8004 


The  following  Department  Bulletins  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture (for  sale  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing 
Office,  Washington,  D.  C.)  : 

20.  The  Management  of  Sheep  on  the  Farm.    Price,  10  cents. 
94.  Domestic  Breeds  of  Sheep  in  America.    Price,  25  cents. 
206.  The  Wool  Grower  and  the  Wool  Trade.    Price,  15  cents. 
593.  Judging  Sheep  as  a  Subject  of  Instruction  in  Secondary  Schools.    Price, 
10  cents. 
The  following  documents,  prepared  in  the  division  of  Agricultural  Instruc- 
tion, as  suggestions  to  teachers  in  secondary  schools,  have  been  issued  pre- 
viously : 

A.  I.  1.  Farm  Records  and  Accounts. 

A.  I.  2.  Agricultural  Exhibits  and  Contests. 

A.  I.  3.  Food  Requirements  of  the  Human  Body. 

A.  I.  4.  Raising  Ducks,  Geese,  and  Turkeys. 

A.  I.  5.  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals. 

A.  I.  6.  Home  Floriculture  and  Home  Ground  Improvement. 

A.  I.  7.  The  Propagation  and  Pruning  of  Plants. 

A.  I.  8.  Marketing  Farm  Products. 

A.  I.  9.  Increasing  Production  on  the  Farm. 

(Issued  April  5,  1918.) 


WASHINGTON  :  GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  \  1918 


